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Research indicates that educators in ECE contexts support the integration of computer technology in their classrooms (Specht et al., 2002; Wood, Willoughby, & Specht, 1998); but, similar to the elementary and secondary educators, they may require more exposure to computers, and more training, in order to provide greater confidence in their ability to use it effectively and comfortably (Wood et al., 2002). In a recent study (Wood, Specht, Willoughby, & Mueller, 2006), the majority of early childhood educators concurred with early childhood educators sampled in previous studies in their support of computers as potentially positive additions to the ECE environment (Specht et al., 2002; Tsitouridou & Vryzas, 2003). In particular, computers were perceived to be a highly motivating alternative means for providing instructional opportunities that satisfied the general constraints of a child-centered approach. Computers 289

softver.vsd 15/11/97

Julie Mueller, Eileen Wood, and Teena Willoughby were generally depicted as providing an additional or alternative activity for children, or as an independent learning tool None of the educators identified the computer as a central means of instruction This characterization of computers as an ancillary rather than a central feature of instruction echoes one of the ongoing debates in the elementary and secondary school literatures Specifically, current discussion suggests that there are two ways of incorporating computers into the classroom: one views computers as an additional add-on activity, and the other involves more extensive integration where the computer is used as a medium for instruction (eg, Conlon & Simpson, 2003; Goos, Galbraith, Renshaw, & Geiger, 2003) This latter form of integration may not be possible given the present limitations in resources in the ECE environment.

system. Each component is therefore proved as t for purpose as a component within the overall system.

For example, educators would not have enough computers to engage groups of children interactively on the computers since, on average, only one computer was available in each center In such settings, perhaps limited computer resources are driving the instructional use of computers rather than pedagogy Alternatively, it may be that early childhood educators do not perceive the full integration of computers as appropriate for their young learners Indeed, some educators voiced concern that computers should be limited to specific programming goals or contexts and identified potential risks to social development from the integration of technology, similar to the concerns that were identified in the early literature in this area (eg, Barnes & Hill, 1983; Kaden, 1990; Zajonc, 1984) These concerns were seen as especially salient for the youngest children at their centers.

11.12 Extended Operations (ETOPS)

First, children were perceived to have less time to interact with peers, observe peer models, and engage in social problem solving during these critical early years Second, there was a concern that young children would be engaged with an inanimate object rather than with their peers Clearly, concern about the potential social impact of computers is an ongoing issue in the literature and an important one for these educators, with both positive and negative outcomes being identified (Attewell, Suazo-Garcia, & Battle, 2003; Healy, 1998) Interestingly, educators only targeted social concerns for the younger children at the centers (children under 3) Among the older children (4- and 5-year-olds), computers were perceived as promoting cooperative activity and also providing an outlet for individual quiet time.

Extended Operations (ETOPS) of multi-engine aircraft was introduced in response to calls for the relaxation of operations of two-engine aircraft allowing them to be operated further from diversion airports than had previously been allowed. The driver for this desire was the considerable increase in reliability of later generation turbo-fan engines with the earlier propeller and jet engines. Starting in 1985 the FAA introduced advisory circulars (AC 120-42, 6 June 1985; AC 120-40A, 30 December 1988) that provided guidance for the operation of air carrier two-engine aircraft certi ed under FAR Part 121. These documents introduced the term ETOPS and introduced guidance for these extended operations including the consideration of aircraft and engine design, maintenance programmes and ight operations. Under this guidance two-engine aircraft are allowed to y up to 180 minutes from an airport suitable to receive the aircraft provided necessary criteria are met. It has been estimated that the number of ETOPS operations have increased from 1000 per month in 1985 to in excess of 1000 per day in 2004. In the meantime engine reliability as measured by the In-Flight Shut-Down (IFSD) has reduced to less than half that experienced in the mid-1980s.

The educators highlighted modifications to the classroom setting that could maximize social interaction when using computers, such as providing multiple chairs around the computer and providing access for more than one child on the computer at any given time Modifications such as these could be used to encourage peer interaction while using the computer and reduce educators concerns about isolation (Willoughby, Wood, Leacy, & Wells, 2001) Early exposure to computer technology was perceived as providing the 290.